MANUAL FOR THE SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE (SPQ and SPQ-B)
Adrian Raine, Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
This document is written for researchers interested in the
use and application of the full-length SPQ and the briefer SPQ-B. It briefly
summarizes the psychometric properties of these instruments and reports
findings on construct validity. If you use these instruments, the author would
be grateful for receiving information on findings at the address below:
Adrian
Raine, Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-1061, U.S.A.
Tel. 213
740 7348
Email:
raine@usc.edu
Web: http://www-rcf.usc.edu/~raine/
The SPQ and SPQ-B are provided for
unlimited use and free of charge. They can be used with both adults and
adolescents, and with both normal and pathological populations.
SCORING
FOR SPQ AND NORMS
Full details of the SPQ are obtained in (Raine, 1991). A
copy of the instrument may be obtained from the author. Each "Yes" response on the SPQ
scores one point. Total scores can therefore range from 0 to 74. Sub-scale
scores can be calculated by summating the following items:
Ideas of
reference 1 10 19
28 37 45 53 60 63
Excessive
social anxiety 2 11
20 29 38 46 54 71
Odd
beliefs or magical thinking 3 12 21 30 39 47 55
Unusual
perceptual experiences 4 13 22 31 40 48 56 61 64
Odd or
eccentric behavior 5
14 23 32 67 70 74
No close
friends 6 15 24 33
41 49 57 62 66
Odd
speech 7 16 25 34
42 50 58 69 72
Constricted
affect 8 17 26 35
43 51 68 73
Suspiciousness
9 18 27 36 44 52 59
65
Scores to measures three factors of schizotypy
(Cognitive-Perceptual, Interpersonal, and Disorganized) can be derived by
simple summation of the sub-scale raw scores for the relevant factors (see
Factor Structure below for a breakdown).
In the original population on which
the instrument was developed, norms were as follows:
Sample 1
(N=302): M = 26.9, SD = 11.0, range = 0-58.
Sample 2
(N=220). M = 26.3, SD = 11.4, range = 1-57
Ten percent high and low cut-offs on the distribution of
scores of the SPQ were 41 and 12 respectively.
A sample of 103 male and female adults (age range 18-45)
recruited from temporary employment agencies in Los Angeles had the following
scores:
Mean SD Minimum Maximum
Total SPQ 26.4 15.3 0 72
Cognitive-perceptual 11.1 7.4 0 31
Interpersonal 9.7 6.8 0 28
Disorganized 6.0 4.5 0 16
While very
similar to the original normative sample, it should be born in mind that while
unselected, this community sample showed significant elevations in the
base-rate of DSM-IV schizotypal and paranoid personality disorders.
Experience has shown that mean scores and 10% cut-offs can
range from sample to sample and country to country. For example, normative data
for a community sample of 1201 male and female 23 year-old Mauritians are as
follows:
Total SPQ: M = 24.2, SD = 13.1, range = 0
– 67.
Cog-Perceptual M = 11.1, SD = 6.1, range = 0 - 31
Interpersonal M = 12.4, SD = 6.7, range = 0 - 32
Disorganized M = 4.6, SD = 3.9, range = 0 – 16
10% high-low cut-offs on the total
score were 42 and 8 respectively (i.e. those scoring 8 or less fell into the bottom
10%, while those scoring 42 or more fell into the top 10%). Hall and Habbits
(1996) obtain cut-offs of 39 and 10 for English undergraduate.
The original population on which the
SPQ was developed consisted of Californian undergraduates at a large private
university in Los Angeles, and experience has shown that they appear to have
higher scores than more selected undergraduates (e.g. medical students in
England) and other community populations. Examples of other means for the SPQ
are 23.5 for English undergraduates (Hall and Habbits, 1996).
It is
likely that the culture in Los Angeles provides a more comfortable atmosphere
for the expression of unusual ideas, odd beliefs, and eccentric behavior than
some other locations, resulting in greater representation of high schizotypal
scorers in the original sample.
Schizotypy scores are also consistently found to be higher in
adolescents and young adults (both on the SPQ and other schizotypy scales), and
furthermore scores can be influenced significantly by the research context and
local sub-culture.
It is recommended therefore that researchers interested in
defining extreme groups in their studies should not stick rigidly to the
original normals, but should instead develop their own high-low cut-offs based on
normative data from their population of interest. The original paper (Raine,
1991) used 10% high-low cut-offs, but other researchers may wish to explore
other stricter (e.g. 5%) or more lax (e.g. 15%) cut-offs.
Means and SDs for the total score and
sub-factors for a sample of 220 male and female undergraduates (Raine and
Benishay, 1995) are as follows:
Total scale score M
= 9.6, SD = 5.3
Cognitive-Perceptual M
= 3.6, SD = 2.3
Interpersonal M
= 3.6, SD = 2.4
Disorganized M
= 2.5, SD = 1.9
Subjects scoring 17 and above made up
the top 10% of the distribution of scores; subjects scoring two or less made up
the bottom 8% while those scoring 3 or less made up the bottom 14% of scores.
RELIABILITY
AND VALIDITY OF SPQ
Internal
Reliability.
Coefficient alpha for the total scale score is assessed at
.90 and .91. Alpha for the individual sub-scales range from .71 to .78 (mean
.74) (Raine, 1991).
Test-retest
reliability
Two-month test-retest reliability is .82 (Raine, 1991).
Convergent
Validity
The SPQ correlates .81 with the STA and from .59 to .65 with
the Schizophrenism scale, scales which assess several of the DSM-III-R traits
for schizotypal personality (Raine, 1991).
Discriminant
Validity
The SPQ has low correlations with scales which assess
psychosis-proneness but which are not included in DSM-III-R criteria for
schizotypal personality (.18 to .19 with Anhedonia, and .27 to .37 with
Psychoticism). These correlations are significant, but significantly lower than
correlations with the STA and Schizophrenism scales (Raine, 1991).
Criterion
Validity
55% of those scoring in the top 10% of SPQ total scores have
a DSM-III-R clinical diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder as assessed
by the SCID (Raine, 1991).
Subjects judged to have a specific schizotypal trait present
as opposed to absent (as judged from a SCID interview) have higher scores on
the SPQ sub-scale measuring this trait (Raine, 1991).
Kremen et al. (1998) in their sample of relatives of
schizophrenics observed that both of the “definite schizotypal” subjects (p.
35) were in the top 10th percentile on the SPQ.
BRIEF VERSION OF THE SPQ (SPQ-B)
The SPQ-B (Raine and Benishay, 1995) is a quick, two minute,
22 item instrument which is based on the SPQ. It may be used when time
limitations in a research protocol does not allow for use of the longer SPQ, or
alternatively it may be used to screen large numbers, either by mail or
telephone, for predisposition to schizotypal personality disorder prior to a
later confirmatory diagnostic interview.
Essentially, the SPQ-B consists of the most reliable items from the original SPQ. The 9 subscales were equally represented in this instrument in order to obtain sampling validity. However, one limitation of the short SPQ-B relative to the SPQ is that the nine sub-scale scores cannot be derived. Instead, the SPQ-B yields a total score, together with scores for each of the three main sub-factors (cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized). Item analysis of the SPQ-B produces essentially the same three-factor structure as is obtained from sub-scale analysis of the SPQ (Axelrod et al. 2001), the SPQ-B factors correlate very highly with the SPQ factors (see below).
Internal reliabilities of these sub-scales range from .72 to
.80 with a mean of .76. Axelrod et al.
(2001) obtain the similar findings, with reliabilities ranging from (.74 to
.76). Two month test-retest reliabilities range from .86 to .95 (mean = .90).
Intercorrelations between SPQ-B factors and SPQ factors range from .89 to .94
(mean = .91). Criterion validity as indicated by correlations between SPQ-B
subscales and clinical interview measures of SPD are good for the total scale
(.66) cognitive-perceptual (.73) and interpersonal (.63), but are lower for
disorganized (.36).
As with the SPQ, each "Yes" response scores one
point. Scoring for the three factors is as follows.
Cognitive-Perceptual:
2 4 5 9 10 12 16 17
Interpersonal:
1 7 11 14 15 18 21 22
Disorganized:
3 6 8 13 19 20
The total score is the simple summation of the three factor
scores. Question numbers from the original SPQ for these items may be located
in Table 1 in Raine and Benishay (1995).
Mean scores for the SPQ-B are as
follows:
Raine and Benishay (1995) Axelrod
et al. (2001) Irwin (2001)
(220 undergraduates) (237 inpatients, (116 Australian adults)
13-19 years)
Cog-Per 3.6 (2.3) 2.7 (2.2) 3.4 (2.0)
Interpersonal 3.6 (2.4) 3.6 (2.4) 3.4 (2.2)
Disorganized 2.5 (1.9) 2.3 (2.0) 2.5 (1.9)
Total score 9.6 (5.3) 8.6 (5.5) -
Scores of 17 and above fall into the top 10% while scores of 2 or less fall into the bottom 8% (Raine and Benishay, 1995).
FACTOR STRUCTURE
Confirmatory factor analysis has repeatedly shown
that the SPQ breaks down into three factors of Cognitive-Perceptual Deficits,
Interpersonal Deficits, and Disorganized (Raine et al. 1994). This three factor
structure has been closely replicated in England (Gruzelier et al. 1995;
Gruzelier, 1996), Taiwan (Chen et al. 1997), Mauritius (Reynolds et al. 2000),
and France (Doumas et al. 2000). In total it has been replicated in at least
ten independent samples (see Reynolds et al. 2000 for further details). In
addition, Vollema and Hoijtink (2000) also found the same
three-factor structure in psychiatric inpatients and outpatients using analysis
of individual items using generalized multidimensional Rasch models.
In addition to the 9 sub-scale scores and the total scale
score therefore, scores from the SPQ can be computed to assess these three
factors by summating sub-scale scores as follows :
Factor 1: Ideas of Reference
(Cognitive- Odd beliefs / Magical Thinking
Perceptual) Unusual
Perceptual Experiences
Paranoid Ideation
Factor 2: Social Anxiety
(Interpersonal) No Close Friends
Constricted Affect
Paranoid Ideation
Factor 3: Odd Behavior
(Disorganized) Odd Speech
Some of the work below is based on an initial two-factor
structure we originally observed from exploratory factor analysis, but it is
now recommended that correlates of the three factor structure be examined in
future research.
TRANSLATIONS
The SPQ has been translated into Russian, Chinese, French
(Doumas et al. 1999, 2000), German (Klein, 1997), Italian, Spanish, Polish,
Spanish, Dutch, Arabic, and Mauritian Creole. Contact the author if you need a
translation into one of these languages.
FINDINGS ON CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
Relatives
of schizophrenics
Kremen et al. (1998) show that relatives of schizophrenics
have higher scores on cognitive-perceptual factor of the SPQ than controls. A
trend (p < .07) was observed for the Interpersonal factor, but there was no
main effect for Disorganization. For both Cognitive-Perceptual and
Interpersonal factors, males relatives in particular had high scores.
Yaralian et al. (2000) found that relatives of schizophrenics
scored significantly higher on the Cognitive-Perceptual factor. These positive
findings are in contrast to other schizotypy scales which fail to find higher
scores for positive schizotypal features in relatives of schizophrenics.
Raine et al (1992b) found that females score higher on
positive symptom sub-scales (Ideas of Reference and Odd Beliefs / Magical
Thinking) and the factor of Cognitive / Perceptual Dysfunction. Males scored
higher on negative symptom sub-scales (No Close Friends, Constricted Affect).
These findings replicated across two independent samples. Findings are similar
to previous findings of sex differences on schizotypal scales, and are
analogous to the sex differences reported in schizophrenic symptomatology. Effects
sizes for sex differences are relatively small (.average .31) and may not be
detected by small sample sizes. It was argued that possible that sex
differences in schizophrenic symptomatology may be an exaggeration of small sex
differences found in normals.
Miller and Burns (1995) also found that males scored higher
on negative symptoms using the SPQ. However, they did not find females scoring
higher than males on positive schizotypal features.
Kremen et al. (1998) in a study of relatives of schizophrenics
found a group x sex interactions such that males had higher scores than females
on both Interpersonal and Cognitive-Perceptual factors. For Disorganization
there was a main effect for Disorganization, with males (irrespective of
schizophrenic relative status) scoring higher than females.
Langdon and Coltheart (1999) found
higher cognitive-perceptual scores in females, and high interpersonal deficits
in males.
Roth and Baribeau (1997) found that males are
significantly higher only on the Eccentric-Odd Behavior subscale of the SPQ ,
while females score higher on the Ideas of Reference, Odd Beliefs/Magical
Thinking, and Social Anxiety subscales. Females also scored higher on the
Cognitive-Perceptual and Interpersonal Deficits factors.
Frontal neurocognitive tasks
Spatial working memory Poor spatial working memory is found to characterize
high scorers on the SPQ, particularly those scoring high on poor social
functioning (Park and McTigue, 1997).
Olfactory identification Males with high SPQ scores on the interpersonal
Deficits factor made more olfactory identification errors than did low-scoring
males, findings not attributable to differences in olfactory acuity per se
(Park et al. 1996). Findings were interpreted as suggesting orbitofrontal (olfactory
identification) deficits in males with negative schizotypal features.
Wisconsin Card Sort Daneluzzo et al. (1998) found significant relationships
between total and subscale scores on the SPQ and performance on the Wisconsin
Card Sorting task.
Continuous Performance Task. High SPQ scorers have been shown
to perform more poorly on the continuous performance task (Chen et al. 1998).
Chen et al. (1997) found that high scores on the Interpersonal and Disorganized
factors (but not the Cognitive-Perceptual factor) was associated with poor
performance on the continuous performance task.
Handedness
Mixed-handed subjects (relative to left and right handed
subjects) have higher scores on the Cognitive-Perceptual factor and its
sub-scales of Unusual Perceptual Experiences, Paranoid Ideation, Odd /
Eccentric Behavior, and Odd Speech (Kim et al., 1991). The single best
correlate of mixed handedness was the Odd Speech sub-scale. This appears
consistent with findings of associations between thought disorder and sinistrality
in schizophrenics. Mixed handedness has previously been found to be selectively
related to Magical Ideation and Perceptual Aberration, but not with more
negative features such as anhedonia (Chapman and Chapman, 1987).
Poreh (1993) failed to find a relationship between mixed
handedness and the SPQ, but Poreh et al. (1997) found that high scorers on the
SPQ were more likely to be non-right handed, especially for skilled tasks.
Gruzelier and Doig (1996) found that left-handedness, and to a lesser extent
mixed-handedness, was associated with odd speech, odd behavior, and negative
(withdrawn) SPQ traits.
Hemisphere
asymmetries.
Gruzelier et al. (1995) showed that high scores on the more
positive SPQ traits (Gruzelier’s “active” syndrome) are associated with left
temporo-parietal dysfunction, whereas more negative SPQ traits (“withdrawn”)
are associated with right temporo-parietal dysfunction. Similar findings were
again reported by Gruzelier and Doig (1996) in which withdrawn scales
(Loneliness and constricted affect) were associated with a right hemisphere,
face advantage asymmetry, while active scales (odd behavior and odd speech)were
associated with self-report activation.
Klein et al. (1999) show that high scorers on the SPQ have
smaller left-than-right temporal P300b amplitudes, and also a failure to show
the right-sided predominance in the post-imperative negative variation (PINV)
observed in normals (Klein et al. 1998).
Cognitive
functioning
Negative priming Moritz et al.
(1998) found that high scorers on the "positive" SPQ scales showed
reduced negative priming. Skosnik et al. (2001) also found that high SPQ
scorers show reduced negative priming. In contrast, with the exception of
social anxiety, no “negative” subscale was associated with negative priming. In
a later study no relationships with semantic priming were observed (Moritz et
al. 1999).
Latent inhibition. Baruch et al.
(1988) found high SPQ scorers to show reduced latent inhibition relative to low
scorers. Latent inhibition was measured using an auditory task, and results
were interpreted as indicating an inability to screen out irrelevant
information in schizotypals. Wuthrich and Bates (2001) in contrast in an
Australian sample observed significant non-linear relationships between
auditory latent inhibition and the SPQ, with both low and high scorers showing
reduced latent inhibition. The same effects were observed fro priming. Braunstein-Bercovitz (2000)
observed disrupted latent inhibition in those scoring high on the SPQ and argued
that the anxiety component of the SPQ, more than the cognitive – perceptual and
disorganization features, that accounts of latent inhibition deficits.
Reaction-time cross-over Sarkin et al. (1998) using the SPQ showed that
negative schizotypal symptoms were associated with the early reaction-time
crossover pattern, while positive schizotypal symptoms related to longer
overall reaction time.
Defective mentalizing Langdon
and Coltheart (1999) observed those with selective mentalizing deficits
(measured by a false-belief picture sequencing task) to score higher on
cognitive-perceptual and interpersonal deficits, but not on disorganization. In
a second experiment they obtained effects for disorganization and
cognitive-perceptual deficits, but not interpersonal deficits.
Trail making Slower
performance on Trails A and B and the Stroop task have been associated with
higher scores on the Disorganization factor of the SPQ (Moritz et al. 1999).
Psychophysiological
functioning
EEG High-scorers on the SPQ show
greater left hemisphere EEG activation (Kidd and Powell, 1993). This same
finding was shown for persistent schizotypals (defined as those high on the
Venables measure of schizophrenism at age 17 years and the SPQ at age 23
years); such individuals showed reduced slow-wave EEG power (delta, theta, alpha
1)over the left (but not right) hemisphere during the beginning of the
continuous performance task.
Event-related potentials. High scorers on the SPQ show lower amplitudes of
the P300b (Klein et al. 1999), and a failure to show the right-sided predominance
in the post-imperative negative variation (PINV) observed in normals (Klein et
al. 1998).
Eye tracking abnormalities. Subjects screened on the SPQ (top 10% scorers) who
also get a confirmed clinical diagnosis of SPD are found to have significantly
poorer eye tracking abnormalities (Lencz et al. 1993)
Skin conductance arousal and orienting abnormalities. Raine et. al. (1997) have found
that those scoring in the top 10% of the SPQ and who have a diagnosis of
schizotypal personality disorder show retarded SC habituation relative to
low-scoring subjects. It was hypothesized that this retarded habituation
reflects a deficit in per-attentive template matching which may partly relate
to the working memory and prefrontal deficits observed in both schizophrenics
and schizotypals (Park and Holzman, 1992, Park et al. 1997).
Persistent schizotypals (defined as those high on the
Venables measure of schizophrenism at age 17 years and the SPQ at age 23 years)
showed significantly increased skin conductance arousal and increased skin
conductance amplitudes to neutral and aversive stimuli at both ages 3 and 11
(Raine et al. 2001). Findings were taken to support the view that heightened SC
arousal and orienting in early childhood is a significant risk factor for later
schizotypal personality.
Gruzelier and Kaiser (1996) in a study of pubertal timing
(early, normal, late) developed three syndrome scores form the SPQ:
Active, Withdrawn, and Unreality. Those with both early and late development of
puberty showed higher Unreality scores compared with the normal maturers.
Compared with the late maturers, early maturing females were Withdrawn, and
showed features of social withdrawal. In females, the Active syndrome was
associated with late maturation. In contrast, Withdrawn males were late maturers, with
features of social withdrawal and social anxiety.
Personality
Total SPQ scores map on to the
Neuroticism (r = .47) and Extraversion (r = -.36) components of the NEO
(Wuthrich and Bates, 2001). In addition to these findings, Widiger (1998) finds
an addition relationship with low Agreeableness and the SPQ.
Wuthrich and Bates (2001) report a
significant positive association between creativity and the SPQ.
Childhood Trauma Irwin (2001)
find significant positive correlations between all three SPQ-B sub-factors and
physical, sexual, and emotional trauma in a sample of Australian adults drawn
from university and community settings.
Dissociative experiences High
SPQ-B scorers were more likely to have dissociative traits (Irwin et al. 1999).
High scorers on the SPQ-B were found to have higher pathological and nonpathological
dissociative scores even after removal of the influence of earlier childhood
trauma (Irwin, 2001). High SPQ-B scores correlate positively with dissociative
experiences in adolescents, with the Cognitive-Perceptual sub-factor
correlating more strongly with imaginative involvement than the Interpersonal
deficits factor (Axelrod et al. 2001). Irwin (1998) similarly report
significant relationships for all three SPQ-B sub-factors and dissociative
experiences in a mixed undergraduate and community sample.
Obsessive-compulsive personality Roth
and Baribeau (2000) in an investigation of schizotypy and obsessive-compulsive
personality found that the strongest links with the SPQ were for compulsive
checking as opposed to compulsive washing, slowness or doubting. Tallis and
Shafran (1997) find that OCD patients with higher SPQ scores have higher
obsessive-compulsive features, and find particularly strong links between the
Cognitive-Perceptual subscale even after controlled for anxiety and depression.
Personality
disorder. Axelrod et al. (2001) find that all sub-factors of the SPQ-B
correlate positively with the introversion (schizoid) and inhibited (avoidant)
subscales of the MACI, but that these correlations were significantly higher
for the Interpersonal Deficits factor ( r = .49 to .66) than for
Cognitive-Perceptual and Disorganized factors (r = .22 to .46).
Behavior problems Persistent schizotypals (defined as those high on the
Venables measure of schizophrenism at age 17 years and the SPQ at age 23 years)
show higher age 17 behavior ratings on conduct disorder, as well as on
psychotic behavior and anxiety-withdrawal (Raine et al. 2001).
Genetics.
The SPQ was administered to approximately 90 pairs of MZ and
DZ twins in Los Angeles in a pilot study. If schizotypal personality is
genetically related to schizophrenia, it would be predicted that the SPQ should
have a significant genetic loading. Preliminary analyses indicated
heritabilities of about .40 for the total scale and sub-factors (Raine and Baker,
1992a).
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